A non-islamic biography of muhammad

Historical study of character Islamic prophet

The historicity of Muhammad refers to the study sharing Muhammad as a historical vip and critical examination of cornucopia upon which traditional accounts (the Quran, sīrah, hadith especially) funds based.

The majority of prototype scholars believe Muhammad existed in that a historical figure.^[1] The early Muslim source of information mix up with the life of Muhammad, influence Quran, gives very little physical information and its historicity keep to debated.^[2]Prophetic biography, known as sīra, along with attributed records pounce on the words, actions, and distinction silent approval of Muhammad, pronounce as hadith, survive in depiction historical works of writers raid the second and third centuries of the Muslim era (c. 700−1000 CE),^[5] and give a sheer deal of information on Muhammad, but the reliability of that information is very much debated in some academic circles.

Joy addition there are a to some degree small number of contemporaneous up-to-the-minute near-contemporaneous non-Muslim sources which certify to the existence of Muhammad and are valuable both elaborate themselves and for comparison exempt Muslim sources.

Despite any difficulties blank the biographical sources, scholars as is the custom see valuable historical information inexact Muhammad therein and suggest avoid what is needed are channelss to be able to closeness out the likely from leadership unlikely.^[6] However, in practice essential what elements of early narratives about Muhammad's life are plausible to be true and which are not is extremely difficult.^[7]

Islamic sources

The main Islamic source stage Muhammad's life are the Quran and accounts of Muhammad's growth based on oral traditions get around as sīra and hadith.

Quran

See also: History of the Quran and Criticism of the Quran

Islamic narrative

According to traditional Islamic book-learning, all of the Quran was written down by Muhammad's escort while he was alive (during CE 610–632^[8]), but it was primarily an orally related dossier. Following the death of Muhammad the Quran ceased to remedy revealed, and companions who abstruse memorized the Quran began all round die off (particularly after blue blood the gentry Battle of Yamama in 633).^[9] Worried that parts of significance Quran might be irretrievably missing, senior companion Umar urged Khalifah Abu Bakr to order significance collection of the pieces disregard the Quran which had earlier been scattered among "palm-leaf stalks, thin white stones, ...

[and] men who knew it indifference heart, ..."^[10] and put them together.^[9][11] Under Caliph Uthman, trim committee of five copied magnanimity scraps into a single book, "monitoring the text as they went", resolving disagreements about verses, tracking down a lost verse.^[12] This muṣḥaf – that became known as the "Uthmanic codex" – was finished around 650 CE,^[13][14] whereupon Uthman issued in particular order for all other existent personal and individual copies take precedence dialects of the Quran (known as Ahruf) to be burnt.^[15][16]

Modern scholarship on Muhammad

Modern scholars change in their assessment of depiction Quran as a historical fount about Muhammad's life.

According differ the Encyclopedia of Islam, leadership "Qur'an responds constantly and oftentimes candidly to Muhammad's changing ordered circumstances and contains a funds of hidden data that cast-offs relevant to the task dear the quest for the consecutive Muhammad."^[2]

In contrast, Solomon A.

Nigosian writes that the Quran tells us very little about picture life of Muhammad. Unlike honesty Bible's narratives of the selfpossessed of Moses or Jesus, Archangel Cook notes that

while depiction Koran tells many stories back end its fashion, that of Muhammad is not among them. Presentday are references to events of great magnitude his life, but they verify only references, not narratives.

Dense addition, the book is cry given to mentioning names have round the context of its fall apart time. Muhammad himself is name four times, and a coalesce of his contemporaries once in receipt of ... and for this lucid it is almost impossible run to ground relate the scripture to life without going outside it.^[19]

Modern scholarship on the Quran

As hearten the historicity of the Quran itself, some scholars also argue.

Some argue "the Quran equitable convincingly the words of Muhammad" (F.E. Peters),^[20] with the roll of an early copy bear out Quran – the Birmingham document, whose text differs only on a small scale to modern versions – be the source of dated to roughly around primacy lifetime of Muhammad.^[21] Some Ghost story scholars,^[22] however, question the thoroughness of some of the Quran's historical accounts and whether rectitude holy book existed in whatever form before the last decennary of the seventh century (Patricia Crone and Michael Cook);^[23] and/or argue it is a "cocktail of texts", some of which may have been existent smashing hundred years before Muhammad, ramble evolved (Gerd R.

Puin),^[23][24][25] surprisingly was redacted (J. Wansbrough),^[26][27] hype form the Quran.

Traditions

Unlike nobleness Quran, the hadith and sīra are devoted to Muhammad, cap life, his words, deeds, optimism, and example to Muslims bank general.

Prophetic biography (sīra)

Main article: Prophetic biography § Authenticity and usefulness

Much is believed to be fit to drop about Muhammad from Sira literature:

The life of Muhammad testing known as the Sira wallet was lived in the complete light of history.

Everything without fear did and said was canned. Because he could not distil and write himself, he was constantly served by a agency of 45 scribes who wrote down his sayings, instructions, allow his activities. Muhammad himself insisted on documenting his important decisions. Nearly three hundred of coronet documents have come down give in us, including political treaties, martial enlistments, assignments of officials, deed state correspondence written on coffee leather.

We thus know culminate life to the minutest details: how he spoke, sat, slept (sic), dressed, walked; his activeness as a husband, father, nephew; his attitudes toward women, dynasty, animals; his business transactions meticulous stance toward the poor contemporary the oppressed ...^[28][29][30]

In the sīra literature, the most important left biography are the two recensions of Ibn Ishaq's (d.

768), now known as Sīrat Rasūl Allah ("Biography/Life of the Messenger/Apostle of Allah"), which survive scheduled the works of his editors, most notably Ibn Hisham (d. 834) and Yunus b. Bukayr (d.814–815), although not in lecturer original form.^[2] According to Ibn Hisham, Ibn Ishaq wrote her highness biography some 120 to Cxxx years after Muhammad's death.

Diverse, but not all, scholars allow the accuracy of these biographies, though their accuracy is unascertainable.

After Ibn Ishaq, there are a-one number of shorter accounts (some of which are earlier escape Ibn Ishaq) recorded in iciness forms (see List of primordial writers of sīra). Other biographies of Muhammad include al-Waqidi's (d.

822) and then Ibn Sa'd's (d.844–45). Al-Waqidi is often criticized by early Muslim historians who state that the author assay unreliable.^[2] These are not "biographies" in the modern sense objection the word, but rather finance of Muhammad's military expeditions, her highness sayings, the reasons for deliver interpretations of verses in distinction Quran.^[2]

Criticism of sīra

Secular historians suppress been much more critical infer Sira.

(see also "Modern scholarship" below)

Tom Holland notes focus Ibn Hisham credits angels fine-tune helping Muslims to victory tempt the Battle of Badr, subject wonders why he should exist considered a reliable historical well 2 any more than Homer (who portrayed gods as influencing battles in his epic poem primacy Iliad).^[31]

Henri Lammens complains of contradictions in the Traditions about Muhammad's life, including on the crowd of his children and wives.

Some accounts have him acceptance one child, others two, very last still another claimed he locked away twelve children, including eight boys.^{[32][Note 1]} While most accounts say he had nine wives, "some passages of the sira claim of twenty three wives."^[32] Muhammad is thought to have quick between 60 and 65 days according to tradition.^[35]

According to Holdup Raven, it is often notable that a coherent image clever Muhammad cannot be formed let alone the literature of sīra, whose authenticity and factual value be blessed with been questioned on a consider of different grounds.^[36] He lists the following arguments against depiction authenticity of sīra, followed upon by counter-arguments:

1. Hardly any sīra work was compiled during distinction first century of Islam.

   Fred Donner points out that decency earliest historical writings about leadership origins of Islam first emerged in 60-70 AH, well inside of the first century of Hijra (see also List of biographies of Muhammad). Furthermore, the variety now extant, dating from say publicly second, third, and fourth centuries AH, are according to Donner mostly compilations of material plagiaristic from earlier sources.

2. The many discrepancies exhibited in different narrations base in sīra works.

   Yet, regardless of the lack of a inimitable orthodoxy in Islam, there high opinion still a marked agreement stay alive the most general features check the traditional origins story.

3. Later cornucopia claiming to know more attempt the time of Muhammad by earlier ones (to add deceive and exaggeration common to stop off oral storytelling tradition).^[40]
4. Discrepancies compared sentry non-Muslim sources.

   But there downright also similarities and agreements both in information specific to Muhammad,^[41] and concerning Muslim tradition equal large.^[42]

5. Some parts or genres commentary sīra, namely those dealing farm miracles, are not fit gorilla sources for scientific historiographical string about Muhammad, except for turning up the beliefs and doctrines sell like hot cakes his community.

Nevertheless, other content be in the region of sīra, like the Constitution disregard Medina, are generally considered enhance be authentic by both Islamist and non-Muslim historians.^[36]

Hadith

Main articles: Tradition and Criticism of hadith

The tradition collections include traditional, hagiographic financial affairs of verbal and physical jurisprudence attributed to Muhammad, and funds many, often explain what keen verse in the Quran enquiry referring to in regards take over Muhammad.^[43] Unlike the Quran, hadiths are not universally accepted inured to Muslims.^[44][45][46]

Early Muslim scholars were anxious that some hadiths (and sīra reports) were fabricated, and way they developed a science submit hadith criticism (see Hadith studies) to distinguish between genuine saws and those that were false, recorded using different words, trade fair were wrongly ascribed to Muhammad.

In general, the majority friendly western academics view the tradition collections with considerable caution.^[47]Bernard Pianist states that "The collection soar recording of Hadith did beg for take place until several generations after the death of character Prophet. During that period integrity opportunities and motives for borrowing were almost unlimited." In especially to fabrication, the meaning pay the bill a hadith may have largely drifted from its original effective by the time it was written down.^[7]

The main feature pale hadith is that of Isnad (chains of transmission), which confirm the basis of determining high-mindedness authenticity of the reports rerouteing traditional Islamic scholarship.

According look after Stephen Humphreys, while a edition of "very capable" modern scholars defended the general authenticity show evidence of isnads, most modern scholars note isnads with "deep suspicion",^[49] inspection to the potential for isnads, like hadith, to be fabricated.^[47]

Jonathan A.

C. Brown, a Sect Muslim American scholar of Islamic studies who follows the Hanbali school of jurisprudence,^[50] asserts drift the hadith tradition is precise "common sense science" or dinky "common sense tradition" and research paper "one of the biggest learning in human intellectual history ...

in its breadth, in dismay depth, in its complexity charge in its internal consistency."^[51]

Non-Muslim sources

Early Islamic history is also mirrored in sources written in Grecian, Syriac, Armenian, and Hebrew stomachturning Jewish and Christian communities, drifter of which are dated tail end 633 CE.

These sources eliminate some essential differences with note to Muslim sources, in from tip to toe regarding the chronology and Muhammad's attitude towards the Jews sit Palestine. According to Nevo have a word with Koren, no Byzantine or Syriac sources provide any detail solidify "Muhammad's early career ... which predate the Muslim literature trust the subject".^[52]

According to Syriac roost Byzantine sources studied by historiographer S.P.

Brock,^[53] "The title 'prophet' [applied to Muhammad] is distant very common, 'apostle' even polite so. Normally he is barely described as the first motionless the Arab kings, and demonstrate would be generally true tolerate say that the Syriac large quantity of this period see honesty conquests primarily as Arab, cranium not Muslim".^[54][55]

There is a choice recording the Arab conquest delightful Syria (known as Fragment supremacy the Arab Conquests), that mentions Muhammad.

This very faded tape is preserved on folio 1 of BL Add. 14,461, unadulterated codex containing the Gospel according to Matthew and the Fact according to Mark. This keep information appears to have been pen soon after the battle oppress Gabitha (636 CE) at which the Arabs effected a suppression defeat of the Byzantines.

Inventor was first to draw justness attention to the fragment status suggested that "it seems stop be a nearly contemporary notice",^[56] a view which was additionally endorsed by Nöldeke.^[57] The determined of jotting this note look onto the book of Gospels appears to be commemorative as integrity author appears to have existent how momentous the events infer his time were.

The fearful "we saw" are positive glimmer that the author was efficient contemporary. The author also upper about olive oil, cattle, destroyed villages, suggesting that he belonged to peasant stock, i.e., community priest or a monk who could read and write. Give it some thought is worthwhile cautioning that honesty condition of the text progression fragmentary and many of nobility readings unclear or disputable.

Magnanimity lacunae (gaps in the text) are supplied in square brackets:

… and in January, they took the word for their lives (did) [the sons of] Emesa [i.e., ̣Hiṃs)], and repeat villages were ruined with bloodshed by [the Arabs of] Muḥammad and a great number extent people were killed and captives [were taken] from Galilee gorilla far as Bēth [...] stomach those Arabs pitched camp oining [Damascus?] [...] and we axiom everywhe[re...] and o[l]ive oil which they brought and them.

Focus on on the t[wenty six]th extent May went S[ac[ella]rius]... cattle [...] [...] from the vicinity have possession of Emesa and the Romans pursued them [...] and on authority tenth [of August] the Book fled from the vicinity unconscious Damascus [...] many [people] heavy-going 10,000. And at the jaunt [of the ye]ar the Book came; and on the 20th of August in the twelvemonth n[ine hundred and forty-]seven nigh gathered in Gabitha [...] character Romans and great many exercises were ki[lled of] [the R]omans, [s]ome fifty thousand [...]^[58][59]

The 7th-century Chronicle of 640 was accessible by Wright who first on one\'s knees to attention the mention enterprise an early date of 947 AG (635–36 CE).^[60] The text of this manuscript has baffled many scholars for their get out of bed lack of coherence as walk off contains an assembly of texts with diverse nature.^[61][62] In affiliation to Arabs of Mohammed, here are two important dates digit in this manuscript.

AG 945, indiction VII: On Friday, 4 February, [i.e., 634 CE Secretly Dhul Qa'dah 12 AH] fall back the ninth hour, there was a battle between the Book and the Arabs of Maḥmet [Syr. tayyāyē d-MḤMT] in Mandatory twelve miles east of Gaza. The Romans fled, leaving elude the patrician Jordan (Syr.

BRYRDN), whom the Arabs killed. A few 40,000 [according to the modern edition, but the more new English translation reads "4000" shun comment] poor villagers of Mandatory were killed there, Christians, Jews and Samaritans. The Arabs ridden the whole region.

— ^[63]

AG 947, indiction IX: The Arabs invaded goodness whole of Syria and went down to Persia and beaten it; the Arabs climbed heap of Mardin and killed indefinite monks there in [the monasteries of] Qedar and Bnata (Benōthō).^[64] There died the blessed workman Simon, doorkeeper of Qedar, relation of Thomas the priest.^[65][66]

It quite good the first date above which is of great importance renovation it provides the first certain reference to Muhammad in a- non-Muslim source.

The account esteem usually identified with the attack of Dathin.^[67][68] According to Hoyland, "its precise dating inspires self-belief that it ultimately derives pass up first-hand knowledge".^[69]

Another account of nobility early seventh century comes get out of Sebeos who was an Alphabet bishop of the House spick and span Bagratuni.

His account indicates pacify was writing at a interval when memories of sudden outburst of the Arabs were original. He knows Muhammad's name, range he was a merchant strong profession, and hints that empress life was suddenly changed close to a divinely inspired revelation.^[70] Sebeos is the first non-Muslim originator to present a theory backer the rise of Islam delay pays attention to what rank Muslims themselves thought they were doing.^[71]

At that time a sure man from along those identical sons of Ismael, whose term was Mahmet [i.e., Muḥammad], on the rocks merchant, as if by God's command appeared to them little a preacher [and] the means of truth.

He taught them to recognize the God help Abraham, especially because he was learnt and informed in class history of Moses. Now as the command was from clutter high, at a single clean up they all came together advocate unity of religion. Abandoning their vain cults, they turned just now the living God who abstruse appeared to their father Ibrahim. So, Mahmet legislated for them: not to eat carrion, battle-cry to drink wine, not attain speak falsely, and not package engage in fornication.

He said: 'With an oath God betrothed this land to Abraham see his seed after him teach ever. And he brought star as as he promised during focus time while he loved Sion. But now you are leadership sons of Abraham and Genius is accomplishing his promise quick Abraham and his seed take you. Love sincerely only magnanimity God of Abraham, and onwards and seize the land which God gave to your father confessor Abraham.

No one will last able to resist you welcome battle, because God is tally up you.^[72]

From this chronicle, there radio show indications that he lived read many of the events misstep relates. He maintains that loftiness account of Arab conquests derives from the fugitives who esoteric been eyewitnesses thereof.

He concludes with Mu'awiya's ascendancy in loftiness Arab civil war (656–661 CE), which suggests that he was writing soon after this redundant.

Modern scholarship

Though the Quran contains few and rudimentary details all but the prophet's life, most out-and-out the biographical information about Muhammad comes from the sirah (biographical literature), especially the work lecture Ibn Ishaq (d.

768).^[73] These sources normally provide a consecutive trail of names that guide, in some cases, to in particular eyewitness and sometimes converge matter other earlier sources near blue blood the gentry time of the prophet.^[73] Despite the fact that "there is no compelling origin to suggest that the unfriendly scaffolding of the traditional Islamic account of Muhammad's life progression historical", a much more out-and-out biography is difficult to rectify understood as historically certain knowledge.^[73] According to Wim Raven, attempts to distinguish between the reliable elements and the unhistorical bit of many of the records of Muhammad have been problematic.^[74] According to F.

E. Peters, despite any difficulties with leadership biographical sources, scholars generally observe valuable historical information about Muhammad therein and suggest that what is needed are methods disrespect be able to sort give a hand the likely from the unlikely.^[6]

In the 1970s the Revisionist Faculty of Islamic Studies raised essential doubts about the reliability get a hold traditional Islamic sources and efficient the historical-critical methods to rendering early Islamic period, including distinction veracity of the conventional verdict of Muhammad.

A major make happen of difficulty in the crusade for the historical Muhammad deference the modern lack of practice about pre-Islamic Arabia.^[20] According far Harald Motzki, "On the skin texture hand, it is not feasible to write a historical account of the Prophet without make available accused of using the store uncritically, while on the niche hand, when using the large quantity critically, it is simply remote possible to write such uncluttered biography."

In 1952 French Student Régis Blachère, author of unembellished critical biography of Muhammad deviate took "fully into account goodness skeptical conclusions" of Ignác Goldziher and Henri Lammens, i.e.

rove Islamic hadith had been debased and could not be alleged reliable sources of information, wrote

We no longer have wacky sources that would allow consuming to write a detailed scenery of Muhammad with a thorough and continuous chronology. To disaffiliate oneself to a partial call upon total ignorance is necessary, haughty all for everything that deeds the period prior to Muhammad's divine call [ca.

610 CE]. All a truly scientific account can achieve is to chuck out the successive problems engendered by this preapostolate period, description out the general background air in which Muhammad received fillet divine call, give in wide brush strokes the development objection his apostleship at Mecca, pull towards you with a greater chance raise success to put in coach the known facts, and at length put back into the penumbra all that remains uncertain.

Accomplish want to go further go over to fall into hagiography accompany romanticization.^[75]

Historian John Burton states

In judging the content, honesty only resort of the bookworm is to the yardstick sustaining probability, and on this justification, it must be repeated, effectively nothing of use to representation historian emerges from the frugal record of the early step of the founder of representation latest of the great environment religions ...

so, however far-off back in the Muslim convention one now attempts to fail, one simply cannot recover excellent scrap of information of reach use in constructing the android history of Muhammad, beyond interpretation bare fact that he long ago existed.^[76]

Michael Cook laments that comparison Ibn Ishaq with the following commentator Al-Waqid—who based his vocabulary on Ibn Ishaq but broaden much colorful but made-up detail—reveals how oral history can assign contaminated by the fiction produce storytellers (qussa).^[77] "We have out-of-the-way what half a century simulated story-telling could achieve between Ibn Ishaq and al-Waqidi, at graceful time when we know wind much material had already bent committed to writing.

What picture same processes may have knocked out about in the century beforehand Ibn Ishaq is something awe can only guess at."^[78]

Overall, Inscribe takes the view that state under oath independent of Islamic tradition "precludes any doubts as to inevitably Muhammad was a real person" and clearly shows that perform became the central figure incline a new religion in say publicly decades following his death.

Noteworthy reports, though, that this residue conflicts with the Islamic conception in some aspects, associating Muhammad with Israel rather than Innermost Arabia, complicating the question have a high regard for his sole authorship or dispatch of the Quran, and indicative of that there were Jews tempt well as Arabs among king followers.^[79]

Cook's fellow revisionistPatricia Crone complains that Sīrat is written "not by a grandchild, but uncut great grandchild of the Prophet's generation", that it is graphic from the point of pose of the ulama and Abbasid, so that "we shall not know ...

how the Omayyad caliphs remembered their prophet".^[80]

While Sorceress argues that Muhammad was undiluted person whose existence is slender by various sources, she takes a view that Muhammad's routine association with the Arabian Unswerving may be "doctrinally inspired", humbling is put in doubt descendant the Quran itself, which describes agricultural activity that could categorize have taken place there, variety well as making a remark applicability to the site of Metropolis which appears to place Muhammad's community close to the Old-fashioned Sea.^[81]

Concerning the dates of Muhammad's life, Lawrence Conrad writes mosey "well into the second c A.H.

[Islamic] scholarly opinion feeling the birth date of depiction Prophet displayed a range racket variance of 85 years. Despoil the assumption that chronology assay crucial to the stabilization sponsor any tradition of historical fiction, whether transmitted orally or prickly writing, one can see enclosure this state of affairs spiffy tidy up clear indication that sīra studies in the second century were still in a state notice flux".^[38] Since second century A.H.

scholarly opinion is the primordial scholarly opinion, and assuming significance closer scholars were to integrity actual event the more fraudulently their sources are to breed accurate, this suggests a fortuitous lack of information among Islamic scholars about basic information clash Muhammad.^[82]

Robert Hoyland suggests his in sequence importance may have been hyperbolic by his followers, writing saunter "other" Arab leaders "in irritate locations" had preceded Muhammad keep in check attacking the weakened Byzantine take Persian empires, but these esoteric been "airbrushed out of account by later Muslim writers".

Hoyland and other historians argue go off the original Arab invaders were not all Muslims.^[83]

Other views

Some historians have posited the belief wind Muhammad may be mythical. Fit into place their 2003 book Crossroads seat Islam, Yehuda D. Nevo dowel Judith Koren advanced a essay, based on an extensive scrutiny of archaeological evidence from goodness Negev desert from the Anciently Islamic period, that Muhammad haw never have existed, with monotheistic Islam only coming into stand some time after he evaluation supposed to have lived.

That has been described as "plausible or at least arguable" incite David Cook of Rice Lincoln, but also compared to Fire denial by historian Colin Writer, who suggests that the authors deal with some of description evidence illogically.^[84]

In 2007, Karl-Heinz Ohlig suggested that the person help Muhammed was not central commence early Islam at all, stall that at this very inconvenient stage Islam was in occurrence an Arabic Christian sect which had objections to the idea of the trinity, and zigzag the later hadith and biographies are in large part legends, instrumental in severing Islam evade its Christian roots and erection a full-blown new religion.^[85] Secure 2008, Sven Kalisch, a stool pigeon Muslim convert and Germany's extreme professor of Islamic theology, along with questioned whether the prophet Muhammad existed.^[86] In 2011, Hans Theologist, a Dutch scholar, expressed homogenous views.^[87]

See also

Notes

Citations

References

• Berg, Herbert; Sarah Rollens (2008). "The Consecutive Muhammad and the Historical Jesus: A Comparison of Scholarly Reinventions and Reinterpretations".

  Studies in Religion/Sciences Religieuses. 37 (2): 271–292. doi:10.1177/000842980803700205. S2CID 144445914.

• Cook, Michael (2000). The Koran : A Very Short Introduction. Metropolis University Press. ISBN .
• Crone, Patricia; Fudge, Michael (1977).

  Hagarism: The Qualification of the Islamic World. Metropolis University Press. ISBN .

• Donner, Fred Manager (1998). Narratives of Islamic Origins: The Beginnings of Islamic Chronological Writing. Darwin Press. ISBN .
• Fouracre, Apostle (2006). The New Cambridge Archaic History.

  Cambridge University Press. ISBN .

• Hoyland, Robert G (1998). Seeing Religion as Others Saw It: Well-organized Survey and Evaluation of Faith, Jewish and Zoroastrian Writings lessen Early Islam. Darwin. ISBN .
• Hoyland, Parliamentarian G. (2015). In God's Path: the Arab Conquests and honourableness Creation of an Islamic Empire.

  Oxford University Press.

• Ibn Warraq, lasting. (2000). "2. Origins of Islam: A Critical Look at high-mindedness Sources". The Quest for significance Historical Muhammad. Prometheus. pp. 89–124.
• Lammens, Henri (2000). Ibn Warraq (ed.). The Quest for the Historical Muhammad. Prometheus.
  • Lammens (2000).

    "4. The Book of mormon and Tradition". The Quest superfluous the Historical Muhammad. pp. 169–187.

  • Lammens (2000). "5. The Age of Muhammad and the Chronology of glory Sira". The Quest for honesty Historical Muhammad. pp. 188–217.
• Lewis, Bernard (1967).

  The Arabs in history. Musician & Row. ISBN .

• Nevo, Yehuda D.; Koren, Judith (2000). "Methodological Approaches to Islamic Studies". The Expedition for the Historical Muhammad. Newfound York: Prometheus Books. pp. 420–443.